Types of pumps
1- Displacement pumps:
Reciprocating
Screw pump
Gears pump
2- Axial flow pumps
3- Centrafugal pumps:
Pump Classification According to Purpose and Principle of Operation
(A) PUMP CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PURPOSE
In accordance with their purpose, shipboard pumps can be di¬vided into three groups:
1. General service pumps whose function is to ensure the sea¬worthiness of the ship and to provide for the domestic needs of the
•crew and passengers, and also to maintain the necessary sanitary conditions on board.
2. Pumps of the shipboard systems, designed to serve the main
•and auxiliary systems, and to facilitate the maintenance of normal conditions for their operation.
3. Special-purpose pumps in tankers, trawlers, ice-breakers, life-saving ships and dredgers. General service pumps include:
(1) bilge pumps,
(2) sanitary pumps,
(3) fire pumps,
(4) emergency pumps.
(B) PUMP CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The following types are distinguished:
1. Static head, or potential energy, pumps,
2. Dynamic head, or kinetic energy, pumps.
The first group of pumps, which mainly create a static head or potential energy, are of the positive displacement type and in¬clude reciprocating and rotary pumps.
In addition to the static head, the pumps of the second group impart considerable dynamic head, or kinetic energy, to the liquid being handled. The part of the kinetic energy (dynamic head) re¬quired to deliver the liquid to its destination is transformed into potential energy (static head) in special parts of the pump designed for this purpose. In other words, velocity head is converted into pressure head.
The second group includes centrifugal, propeller and jet pumps.
Jumat, 30 Januari 2009
Rabu, 28 Januari 2009
FOOD HABBITS
FOOD HABBITS
food habits too follows various trends. There are times when Fast food are a craze and at times ppl suddenly turn health cautious eating only what is “green”. Trends in food are very common. Fast food sells like anything. It is a western concept that has gained large popularity in INDIA. Though largely disadvantageous ppl tend to neglect the health hazards caused by them…. Processed food are a little different from fast food. They are better than fast food but have some shortcomings too. They r not fresh, not homemade and above all not always a safe option..
Apart from the food habits the focus should also be on what is called “THE RICH MANS STUFF”. Charas , Ganja etc and other sedatives supplemented by less harmful cigrettes hooka etc are turning out to be a gr8 hit .
Then there are synthetically produced food stuffs that are forming the trend of the future. Tofu , spirulina etc The details of these trends in food are as follows
JUNK FOOD
The message is: avoid high calorie and carbohydrate-rich food, including junk foods and beverages, right from childhood, because the seed of obesity in adults is sown in early childhood. The oft-repeated medical advice may sound staid, but studies conducted by doctors of the All-India Medical Institute (AIIMS), have shown that obesity, if not checked in early childhood, leads to cardiovascular diseases, diabetes mellitus, insulin resistance, gall stone disease and reproductive disorders.
We think Indian fast food is a healthier option than the reviled burger or pizza. But now studies prove they are no better.
Doctors say change in the dietary habits of children and their survival on aerated drinks, chips, noodles, sweets and chocolates alone have led to poor oral health, obesity, calcium and vitamin D deficiency and many other problems amongst these children.
We are seeing an alarmingly high number of children having symptoms of pre-diabetes, which makes them more prone to diabetes when they grow up. Mostly these children are obese, feeding on high calorie junk food like chocolates, pizzas with low nutritional value. Physical exercise is negligible due to mounting pressure, making things worse. The need of the hour is to distract the youth from fast food as the trends of diseases and side effects of fast food are alarming..
FOOD TRENDS/PROCESSED FOODS
The Indian snack food market comprising bakery products, ready to eat mixes,instant food mixes, curries, chips, namkeens and other processed foods is large, diverse and dominated by the unorganized sector.
The popular milk products are cheese, butter, ghee, dairy whiteners and ice-creams.
What does the average middle class Indian eat in a day?
Chhole kulche, chana bhatura, samosa, kachori. Our own foods are killers. We don’t need the West to damage us. We are doing a good job of it ourselves
Recent reports on the dangers of trans-fatty acids in packaged foods.
We have to take these dangers very seriously.
Younger and younger people are today suffering from obesity and diabetes — thanks in part to such foods — which in turn is leading to cardio-vascular diseases.
Many high-end hospitals and posh schools offer/sell unhealthy and junk food. This is a case of commercialism triumphing over promotion of good health.
Young people are drawn towards eating these foods which are so attractively advertised on television...
The idiot box could not only be battering your senses day in and day out, but also affecting your eating habits.
Apart from changing the way people relate with one another, the obsession with prime time television is also impacting their culinary and dietary habits
Prime time is the time when maximum TV-viewing occurs, which also happens to be the time when most individuals are at home and winding up their daily grind.
They need to eat, relax and chat with the family prior to ending the day, but all this takes a back seat to TV.
Prime time television is forcing people to sacrifice meal planning and a balanced diet.
For housewives who feel TV is their only source of relaxation, regulate their time-table to suit television programmes .They either change their dinner time or eat before the TV set, which results in snacking on high calorie food. Families end up ordering out to minimise complex dinners being made at home
Youth and kids are influenced by commercials to crave convenience foods which imply that home food like roti and sabzi is boring.
Convenience foods like ready-to-eat packaged foods are high in sodium and preservatives and this can lead to disorders like hypertension, obesity, cardiovascular diseases and cancer.
Today's lifestyle has resulted in many changes in eating habits, and a move towards greater convenience. People are eating more processed and packaged food than before.
Whether in the form of munchies or biscuits, sauces or ready-to-eat foods, there are issues the consumer should consider before putting items into his shopping cart.
Most people don't check the labels of any of the packaged foods they buy. The reason being, anything that looks relatively fresh and is reasonably priced is considered good.
food habits too follows various trends. There are times when Fast food are a craze and at times ppl suddenly turn health cautious eating only what is “green”. Trends in food are very common. Fast food sells like anything. It is a western concept that has gained large popularity in INDIA. Though largely disadvantageous ppl tend to neglect the health hazards caused by them…. Processed food are a little different from fast food. They are better than fast food but have some shortcomings too. They r not fresh, not homemade and above all not always a safe option..
Apart from the food habits the focus should also be on what is called “THE RICH MANS STUFF”. Charas , Ganja etc and other sedatives supplemented by less harmful cigrettes hooka etc are turning out to be a gr8 hit .
Then there are synthetically produced food stuffs that are forming the trend of the future. Tofu , spirulina etc The details of these trends in food are as follows
JUNK FOOD
The message is: avoid high calorie and carbohydrate-rich food, including junk foods and beverages, right from childhood, because the seed of obesity in adults is sown in early childhood. The oft-repeated medical advice may sound staid, but studies conducted by doctors of the All-India Medical Institute (AIIMS), have shown that obesity, if not checked in early childhood, leads to cardiovascular diseases, diabetes mellitus, insulin resistance, gall stone disease and reproductive disorders.
We think Indian fast food is a healthier option than the reviled burger or pizza. But now studies prove they are no better.
Doctors say change in the dietary habits of children and their survival on aerated drinks, chips, noodles, sweets and chocolates alone have led to poor oral health, obesity, calcium and vitamin D deficiency and many other problems amongst these children.
We are seeing an alarmingly high number of children having symptoms of pre-diabetes, which makes them more prone to diabetes when they grow up. Mostly these children are obese, feeding on high calorie junk food like chocolates, pizzas with low nutritional value. Physical exercise is negligible due to mounting pressure, making things worse. The need of the hour is to distract the youth from fast food as the trends of diseases and side effects of fast food are alarming..
FOOD TRENDS/PROCESSED FOODS
The Indian snack food market comprising bakery products, ready to eat mixes,instant food mixes, curries, chips, namkeens and other processed foods is large, diverse and dominated by the unorganized sector.
The popular milk products are cheese, butter, ghee, dairy whiteners and ice-creams.
What does the average middle class Indian eat in a day?
Chhole kulche, chana bhatura, samosa, kachori. Our own foods are killers. We don’t need the West to damage us. We are doing a good job of it ourselves
Recent reports on the dangers of trans-fatty acids in packaged foods.
We have to take these dangers very seriously.
Younger and younger people are today suffering from obesity and diabetes — thanks in part to such foods — which in turn is leading to cardio-vascular diseases.
Many high-end hospitals and posh schools offer/sell unhealthy and junk food. This is a case of commercialism triumphing over promotion of good health.
Young people are drawn towards eating these foods which are so attractively advertised on television...
The idiot box could not only be battering your senses day in and day out, but also affecting your eating habits.
Apart from changing the way people relate with one another, the obsession with prime time television is also impacting their culinary and dietary habits
Prime time is the time when maximum TV-viewing occurs, which also happens to be the time when most individuals are at home and winding up their daily grind.
They need to eat, relax and chat with the family prior to ending the day, but all this takes a back seat to TV.
Prime time television is forcing people to sacrifice meal planning and a balanced diet.
For housewives who feel TV is their only source of relaxation, regulate their time-table to suit television programmes .They either change their dinner time or eat before the TV set, which results in snacking on high calorie food. Families end up ordering out to minimise complex dinners being made at home
Youth and kids are influenced by commercials to crave convenience foods which imply that home food like roti and sabzi is boring.
Convenience foods like ready-to-eat packaged foods are high in sodium and preservatives and this can lead to disorders like hypertension, obesity, cardiovascular diseases and cancer.
Today's lifestyle has resulted in many changes in eating habits, and a move towards greater convenience. People are eating more processed and packaged food than before.
Whether in the form of munchies or biscuits, sauces or ready-to-eat foods, there are issues the consumer should consider before putting items into his shopping cart.
Most people don't check the labels of any of the packaged foods they buy. The reason being, anything that looks relatively fresh and is reasonably priced is considered good.
Minggu, 18 Januari 2009
Confectionery
Confectionery
Confectionery, processed food based on a sweetener, which may be sugar or honey, to which are added other ingredients such as flavourings and spices, nuts, fruits, fats and oils, gelatin, emulsifiers, colourings, eggs, milk products, and chocolate or cocoa. Confectionery, usually called sweets in Great Britain, or candy in the United States, can be divided into two kinds according to the preparation involved and based on the fact that sugar, when boiled, goes through different stages from soft to hard in the crystallization process. Typical of soft, or crystalline, sweets—smooth, creamy, and easily chewed—are fondants (the basis of chocolate creams) and fudge; typical hard, noncrystalline sweets are toffees and caramels. Other popular confections include nougats, marshmallows, the various forms of chocolate (bars or moulded pieces, sometimes filled), pastes and marzipan, candy floss (spun sugar, called barbe à papa in France and cotton candy in the United States), popcorn, liquorice, and chewing gum. The term also refers to flour confectionery, such as biscuits and pastries.
Records show that confectionery was used as an offering to the gods of ancient Egypt. Honey was used as the sweetener until the introduction of sugar into medieval Europe. Among the oldest types of confectionery are liquorice and ginger from East Asia and marzipan from Europe. Its production did not begin on a large scale until the early 19th century, when, with the development of special machinery, it became a British speciality. Today, annual world production of confectionery totals many millions of kilograms.
Confectionery, processed food based on a sweetener, which may be sugar or honey, to which are added other ingredients such as flavourings and spices, nuts, fruits, fats and oils, gelatin, emulsifiers, colourings, eggs, milk products, and chocolate or cocoa. Confectionery, usually called sweets in Great Britain, or candy in the United States, can be divided into two kinds according to the preparation involved and based on the fact that sugar, when boiled, goes through different stages from soft to hard in the crystallization process. Typical of soft, or crystalline, sweets—smooth, creamy, and easily chewed—are fondants (the basis of chocolate creams) and fudge; typical hard, noncrystalline sweets are toffees and caramels. Other popular confections include nougats, marshmallows, the various forms of chocolate (bars or moulded pieces, sometimes filled), pastes and marzipan, candy floss (spun sugar, called barbe à papa in France and cotton candy in the United States), popcorn, liquorice, and chewing gum. The term also refers to flour confectionery, such as biscuits and pastries.
Records show that confectionery was used as an offering to the gods of ancient Egypt. Honey was used as the sweetener until the introduction of sugar into medieval Europe. Among the oldest types of confectionery are liquorice and ginger from East Asia and marzipan from Europe. Its production did not begin on a large scale until the early 19th century, when, with the development of special machinery, it became a British speciality. Today, annual world production of confectionery totals many millions of kilograms.
Jumat, 09 Januari 2009
Cane Sugar
Cane Sugar
Growing the Cane
Sugar cane is a sub-tropical and tropical crop that prefers lots of sun and lots of water - provided that its roots are not waterlogged. It typically takes about 12 months to reach maturity although the time varies widely around the world from as short as six months in Louisiana to 24 months in some places. Where it differs from many crops is that it re-grows from the roots so the plant lasts many cycles [or 'ratoons', a word derived from the Spanish to sprout] before it is worn out.
Harvesting
Sugar cane is harvested by chopping down the stems but leaving the roots so that it re-grows in time for the next crop. Harvest times tend to be during the dry season and the length of the harvest ranges from as little as 2 ½ months up to 11 months. The cane is taken to the factory: often by truck or rail wagon but sometimes on a cart pulled by a bullock
Extraction
The first stage of processing is the extraction of the cane juice. In many factories the cane is crushed in a series of large roller mills: similar to a mangle [wringer] which was used to squeeze the water out of clean washing a century ago. The sweet juice comes gushing out and the cane fibre is carried away for use in the boilers. In other factories a diffuser is used as is described for beet sugar manufacture. Either way the juice is pretty dirty: the soil from the fields, some small fibres and the green extracts from the plant are all mixed in with the sugar.
Evaporation
The factory can clean up the juice quite easily with slaked lime (a relative of chalk) which settles out a lot of the dirt so that it can be sent back to the fields. Once this is done, the juice is thickened up into a syrup by boiling off the water using steam in a process called evaporation. Sometimes the syrup is cleaned up again but more often it just goes on to the crystal-making step without any more cleaning. The evaporation is undertaken in order to improve the energy efficiency of the factory
Boiling
The syrup is placed into a very large pan for boiling, the last stage. In the pan even more water is boiled off until conditions are right for sugar crystals to grow. You may have done something like this at school but probably not with sugar because it is difficult to get the crystals to grow well. In the factory the workers usually have to throw in some sugar dust to initiate crystal formation. Once the crystals have grown the resulting mixture of crystals and mother liquor is spun in centrifuges to separate the two, rather like washing is spin dried. The crystals are then given a final dry with hot air before being stored ready for despatch.
Storage
The final raw sugar forms a sticky brown mountain in the store and looks rather like the soft brown sugar found in domestic kitchens. It could be used like that but usually it gets dirty in storage and has a distinctive taste which most people don't want. That is why it is refined when it gets to the country where it will be used. Additionally, because one cannot get all the sugar out of the juice, there is a sweet by-product made: molasses. This is usually turned into a cattle food or is sent to a distillery where alcohol is made.
Growing the Cane
Sugar cane is a sub-tropical and tropical crop that prefers lots of sun and lots of water - provided that its roots are not waterlogged. It typically takes about 12 months to reach maturity although the time varies widely around the world from as short as six months in Louisiana to 24 months in some places. Where it differs from many crops is that it re-grows from the roots so the plant lasts many cycles [or 'ratoons', a word derived from the Spanish to sprout] before it is worn out.
Harvesting
Sugar cane is harvested by chopping down the stems but leaving the roots so that it re-grows in time for the next crop. Harvest times tend to be during the dry season and the length of the harvest ranges from as little as 2 ½ months up to 11 months. The cane is taken to the factory: often by truck or rail wagon but sometimes on a cart pulled by a bullock
Extraction
The first stage of processing is the extraction of the cane juice. In many factories the cane is crushed in a series of large roller mills: similar to a mangle [wringer] which was used to squeeze the water out of clean washing a century ago. The sweet juice comes gushing out and the cane fibre is carried away for use in the boilers. In other factories a diffuser is used as is described for beet sugar manufacture. Either way the juice is pretty dirty: the soil from the fields, some small fibres and the green extracts from the plant are all mixed in with the sugar.
Evaporation
The factory can clean up the juice quite easily with slaked lime (a relative of chalk) which settles out a lot of the dirt so that it can be sent back to the fields. Once this is done, the juice is thickened up into a syrup by boiling off the water using steam in a process called evaporation. Sometimes the syrup is cleaned up again but more often it just goes on to the crystal-making step without any more cleaning. The evaporation is undertaken in order to improve the energy efficiency of the factory
Boiling
The syrup is placed into a very large pan for boiling, the last stage. In the pan even more water is boiled off until conditions are right for sugar crystals to grow. You may have done something like this at school but probably not with sugar because it is difficult to get the crystals to grow well. In the factory the workers usually have to throw in some sugar dust to initiate crystal formation. Once the crystals have grown the resulting mixture of crystals and mother liquor is spun in centrifuges to separate the two, rather like washing is spin dried. The crystals are then given a final dry with hot air before being stored ready for despatch.
Storage
The final raw sugar forms a sticky brown mountain in the store and looks rather like the soft brown sugar found in domestic kitchens. It could be used like that but usually it gets dirty in storage and has a distinctive taste which most people don't want. That is why it is refined when it gets to the country where it will be used. Additionally, because one cannot get all the sugar out of the juice, there is a sweet by-product made: molasses. This is usually turned into a cattle food or is sent to a distillery where alcohol is made.
Rabu, 07 Januari 2009
Chocolate
Chocolate
Chocolate was created by the Mesoamerican civilization, from cacao beans, and cultivated by pre-Columbian civilizations such as the Maya and Aztec, who used it as a basic component in a variety of sauces and beverages. The cocoa beans were ground and mixed with water to produce a variety of beverages, both sweet and bitter, which were reserved only to the highest noblemen and clerics of the Mesoamerican world. The word "chocolate" comes from the Nahuatl words Xocol meaning "bitter" and Atl meaning "water". Chocolate is made from the fermented, roasted, and ground beans taken from the pod of the tropical cacao tree, Theobroma cacao, which was native to Central America and Mexico, but is now cultivated throughout the tropics. The beans have an intensely flavored bitter taste. The resulting products are known as "chocolate" or, in some parts of the world, cocoa
It is the solid and fat combination, sweetened with sugar and other ingredients, that is made into chocolate bars and which is commonly referred to as chocolate by the public. It can also be made into beverages (called cocoa and hot chocolate). The first chocolate beverages were made by the Aztecs and the Mayas and later the Europeans. Chocolate is often produced as small molded forms in the shape of animals, people, or inanimate objects to celebrate festivals worldwide. For example, there are moulds of rabbits or eggs for Easter, coins for Hanukkah, Saint Nicholas (Santa Claus) for Christmas, and hearts for Valentine's Day.
Classifications of Chocolate
• Chocolate is a popular ingredient, and it is available in many types. Different forms and flavours of chocolate are produced by varying the quantities of the different ingredients. Other flavours can be obtained by varying the time and temperature when roasting the beans.
• Unsweetened chocolate is pure chocolate liquor, also known as bitter or baking chocolate. It is unadulterated chocolate: the pure, ground, roasted chocolate beans impart a strong, deep chocolate flavour. With the addition of sugar, however, it is used as the base for cakes, brownies, confections, and cookies.
• Dark chocolate is chocolate without milk as an additive. It is sometimes called "plain chocolate". The U.S. Government calls this "sweet chocolate", and requires a 15% concentration of chocolate liquor. European rules specify a minimum of 35% cocoa solids.
• Milk chocolate is chocolate with milk powder or condensed milk added. The U.S. Government requires a 10% concentration of chocolate liquor. EU regulations specify a minimum of 25% cocoa solids.
• Semisweet chocolate is often used for cooking purposes. It is a dark chocolate with high sugar content.
• Bittersweet chocolate is chocolate liquor (or unsweetened chocolate) to which sugar, more cocoa butter, lecithin, and vanilla has been added. It has less sugar and more liquor than semisweet chocolate, but the two are interchangeable in baking. bittersweet and semisweet chocolates are sometimes referred to as
'couverture' (chocolate that contains at least 32 percent cocoa butter); many brands now print on the package the percentage of cocoa (as chocolate liquor and added cocoa butter) contained. The rule is that the higher the percentage of cocoa, the less sweet the chocolate will be.
• Couverture is a term used for chocolates rich in cocoa butter. Popular brands of couverture used by professional pastry chefs and often sold in gourmet and specialty food stores include: Valrhona, Felchlin, Lindt & Sprüngli, Scharffen Berger, Cacao Barry, Callebaut, and Guittard. These chocolates contain a high percentage of cocoa (sometimes 70% or more) and have a total fat content of 30-40%.
• White chocolate is a confection based on cocoa butter without the cocoa solids.
• Cocoa powder. There are two types of unsweetened baking cocoa available: natural cocoa (like the sort produced by Hershey's and Nestlé) and Dutch-process cocoa (such as the Hershey's European Style Cocoa and the Droste brand). Both are made by pulverising partially defatted chocolate liquor and removing nearly all the cocoa butter. Natural cocoa is light in colour and somewhat acidic with a strong chocolate flavour. Natural cocoa is commonly used in recipes which call for baking soda. Because baking soda is an alkali, combining it with natural cocoa creates a leavening action that allows the batter to rise during baking. Dutch-process cocoa is processed with alkali to neutralise its natural acidity. Dutch cocoa is slightly milder in taste, with a deeper and warmer colour than natural cocoa. Dutch-process cocoa is frequently used for chocolate drinks such as hot chocolate due to its ease in blending with liquids. Unfortunately, Dutch processing destroys most of the flavonols present in cocoa.
• Compound is the technical term for a confection combining cocoa with vegetable fat, usually tropical fats and/or hydrogenated fats, as a replacement for cocoa butter. It is primarily used for candy bar coatings, but because it does not contain cocoa butter, in the US it is not allowed to be called "chocolate." Popular in Britain, the European Union for a time required that it be called "vegelate", but it can now be called "family chocolate". Unfortunately in America, to the untrained observer the adjective used for this substance appears to merely be the adjectival form of chocolate: "chocolatey". The candy bars sold in America often no longer have true chocolate as a major component. This is especially true for much candy passed as "white chocolate", which need not contain anything from the cacao bush at all. This can translate to poor taste, texture and possibly health concerns, particularly when partially hydrogenated oils are used to replace cacao butter.
Flavours such as mint, orange, or strawberry are sometimes added to chocolate. Chocolate bars frequently contain added ingredients such as peanuts, nuts, fruit, caramel, or even crisped rice.
Chocolate was created by the Mesoamerican civilization, from cacao beans, and cultivated by pre-Columbian civilizations such as the Maya and Aztec, who used it as a basic component in a variety of sauces and beverages. The cocoa beans were ground and mixed with water to produce a variety of beverages, both sweet and bitter, which were reserved only to the highest noblemen and clerics of the Mesoamerican world. The word "chocolate" comes from the Nahuatl words Xocol meaning "bitter" and Atl meaning "water". Chocolate is made from the fermented, roasted, and ground beans taken from the pod of the tropical cacao tree, Theobroma cacao, which was native to Central America and Mexico, but is now cultivated throughout the tropics. The beans have an intensely flavored bitter taste. The resulting products are known as "chocolate" or, in some parts of the world, cocoa
It is the solid and fat combination, sweetened with sugar and other ingredients, that is made into chocolate bars and which is commonly referred to as chocolate by the public. It can also be made into beverages (called cocoa and hot chocolate). The first chocolate beverages were made by the Aztecs and the Mayas and later the Europeans. Chocolate is often produced as small molded forms in the shape of animals, people, or inanimate objects to celebrate festivals worldwide. For example, there are moulds of rabbits or eggs for Easter, coins for Hanukkah, Saint Nicholas (Santa Claus) for Christmas, and hearts for Valentine's Day.
Classifications of Chocolate
• Chocolate is a popular ingredient, and it is available in many types. Different forms and flavours of chocolate are produced by varying the quantities of the different ingredients. Other flavours can be obtained by varying the time and temperature when roasting the beans.
• Unsweetened chocolate is pure chocolate liquor, also known as bitter or baking chocolate. It is unadulterated chocolate: the pure, ground, roasted chocolate beans impart a strong, deep chocolate flavour. With the addition of sugar, however, it is used as the base for cakes, brownies, confections, and cookies.
• Dark chocolate is chocolate without milk as an additive. It is sometimes called "plain chocolate". The U.S. Government calls this "sweet chocolate", and requires a 15% concentration of chocolate liquor. European rules specify a minimum of 35% cocoa solids.
• Milk chocolate is chocolate with milk powder or condensed milk added. The U.S. Government requires a 10% concentration of chocolate liquor. EU regulations specify a minimum of 25% cocoa solids.
• Semisweet chocolate is often used for cooking purposes. It is a dark chocolate with high sugar content.
• Bittersweet chocolate is chocolate liquor (or unsweetened chocolate) to which sugar, more cocoa butter, lecithin, and vanilla has been added. It has less sugar and more liquor than semisweet chocolate, but the two are interchangeable in baking. bittersweet and semisweet chocolates are sometimes referred to as
'couverture' (chocolate that contains at least 32 percent cocoa butter); many brands now print on the package the percentage of cocoa (as chocolate liquor and added cocoa butter) contained. The rule is that the higher the percentage of cocoa, the less sweet the chocolate will be.
• Couverture is a term used for chocolates rich in cocoa butter. Popular brands of couverture used by professional pastry chefs and often sold in gourmet and specialty food stores include: Valrhona, Felchlin, Lindt & Sprüngli, Scharffen Berger, Cacao Barry, Callebaut, and Guittard. These chocolates contain a high percentage of cocoa (sometimes 70% or more) and have a total fat content of 30-40%.
• White chocolate is a confection based on cocoa butter without the cocoa solids.
• Cocoa powder. There are two types of unsweetened baking cocoa available: natural cocoa (like the sort produced by Hershey's and Nestlé) and Dutch-process cocoa (such as the Hershey's European Style Cocoa and the Droste brand). Both are made by pulverising partially defatted chocolate liquor and removing nearly all the cocoa butter. Natural cocoa is light in colour and somewhat acidic with a strong chocolate flavour. Natural cocoa is commonly used in recipes which call for baking soda. Because baking soda is an alkali, combining it with natural cocoa creates a leavening action that allows the batter to rise during baking. Dutch-process cocoa is processed with alkali to neutralise its natural acidity. Dutch cocoa is slightly milder in taste, with a deeper and warmer colour than natural cocoa. Dutch-process cocoa is frequently used for chocolate drinks such as hot chocolate due to its ease in blending with liquids. Unfortunately, Dutch processing destroys most of the flavonols present in cocoa.
• Compound is the technical term for a confection combining cocoa with vegetable fat, usually tropical fats and/or hydrogenated fats, as a replacement for cocoa butter. It is primarily used for candy bar coatings, but because it does not contain cocoa butter, in the US it is not allowed to be called "chocolate." Popular in Britain, the European Union for a time required that it be called "vegelate", but it can now be called "family chocolate". Unfortunately in America, to the untrained observer the adjective used for this substance appears to merely be the adjectival form of chocolate: "chocolatey". The candy bars sold in America often no longer have true chocolate as a major component. This is especially true for much candy passed as "white chocolate", which need not contain anything from the cacao bush at all. This can translate to poor taste, texture and possibly health concerns, particularly when partially hydrogenated oils are used to replace cacao butter.
Flavours such as mint, orange, or strawberry are sometimes added to chocolate. Chocolate bars frequently contain added ingredients such as peanuts, nuts, fruit, caramel, or even crisped rice.
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